Kraljevo became an important town as late as in the XVIII century and there is not a long time that there exists a town called Karanovo. There are the proofs of the Roman presence in the environing villages . It has been well known for instance that the spa of Vrnjacka Banja was used for its soothing water on the III century already. In Middle Ages the environment of Karanovo were developing at the end of the XII century the monastery of Studenica had been erected by Stefan Nemanja, the founder of the dynasty of Nemanjics. At the beginning of 1217 there was a king of Serbia for the first time in the history of this state. To assure the control over this central territory, Nemanjics had constructed the fortress of Maglic on the Ibar.

The second important period of the “royal city” it is in the XIX century. Its role in the insurrection against Turks in 1805 and its terrible situation of the cross roads in Sumadija favoured the development of the commerce and the industry. Prince Milos made here a new church to be constructed in 1824 and especially Milan Obrenovic had been crowned 1882 in Zica.

Kraljevo maintained its role of the regional metropolis in the XX century, but its central position in Serbia made it learn a tragedy during the II World War. In October 1941 had been passed the order to shoot 100 Serbs for one German soldier killed and 50 of them for one wounded German. Many thousands persons will fall under the bullets of the occupier in several weeks.
Tourist sites

MONUMENT OF THE SERBIAN COMBATANTS – the symbol of the town dominating all arteries going away from it, this very high sculpture of bronze and dedicated to Serbian soldiers killed during the Balkan Wars 1912-1914 and during the I World War. It has been called tenderly “Milutin” The soldier on the summit has been tenderly called “Milutin”.

VASIN KONAK – In a shadowed park a house of a very nice outlook. Constructed 1831 by Vasa Popovic, brother of a princess Obrenovic it represents one of the rare examples of the Serbian residential architecture from the beginning of XIX century. Beautiful incrustations above the ground floor doors and a very low roof typical for the transition from the Ottoman ages. Today the residence of a religious endowment you may visit the sculpture in wood ateliers down there.

SVETA TROJICA CHURCH – The church constructed by the prince Obrenovic 1882. It is typical for the neo-baroque style and it possesses an iconostasis representative of the end of the XIX century. N face of it, on the square a Soviet tank with the red star in the very place representing the battle against the Nazis.

NATIONAL MUSEUM – Next to the church in the ancient lyceum, a monumental building. Its modest façade and its impressive lines would approach the monuments of the Central Europe of the end XIX century. In the interior is an exhibition of the modern Serbian art and a permanent exhibition of the history of the region.

MONASTERY OF ZICA. Recognizable by its vive red colour, the monastery has a particular importance for the history of the Serbian nation. Zica is since its erection in 1219 the residence of the Serbian diocese here St. Sava, the first Serbian archbishop had crowned his brother King Stefan. Later on the sons of Stefan Radoslav and Vladislav had been crowned here. But at the end of XIII century the patriarchy had been moved to Pec, then the Ottomans had burnt the church many a time. The burnt out arch at the entrance could still be seen. The church belongs to the architecture school of Raska recognisable by its rectangular design and by its square tower.

THE SPA OF MATARUSKA. After Zica, going toward the Ibar, a spa, specialized for rheumatisms. Its agreeable climate and its park offer an agreeable framework for cycling and walks the “Termal” hotel of 60 rooms well managed. The complete pension for 1,400 dinars on the ancient part, 2,500 dinars in the renewed part

Since the Middle Ages Vrsac has been the capital of Banat, and its contacts with Romania had always allowed it to develop a flourishing commerce. This is what could be seen in the beauty and richness of particular public buildings.
Since the Neolithic period the site of Vrsac, like those of Vatin and Mesic in the close environment, had developed a particular form of dwelling and of the community life. In the Roman period the hill of Vrsac had been utilised to install a watch tower, and nowadays this is a favourite place to the inhabitants to take walks in. This particular place has been explaining the development of a commercial town since the XIV century when the name of the town appeared for the first time in the official register. In XIV and XV centuries the town had alternatively passed from the Serbian suzerainty to the Hungarian domination. Between 1552 and 1717 Vrsac had been under the Turkish domination. In that period there were two towns: the Serbian upper town and the German lower town. In 1804 the Austrian Emperor had granted to it the status of a free town. This would give the town a commercial impulse. In XIX century it had got many theatres and lyceums and had seen the flourishing of great Serbian names of arts and literature: the painters Nikola Neskovic and Paja Jovanovic, the dramaturge Jovan Popovic, and additionally the poet Vasko Popa. Still today there are numerous cultural manifestations such as the “Golden Autumns” or the “Biennale of the Youth”. They are the signs of a never stopped vitality
Tourist sites

Monuments

MAGISTRAT – Mayoralty. In what today is the Mayoralty there is a surprising edifice being the symbol of the town. Constructed in 1860 by the German engineer from Temisuara, this red and white palace overhead by a very Venetian dome in a corner has been of the purest New Art style.

COFMANOVA PALATA – Cofman’s Palace. In front of the Mayoralty a larger neo-Renaissance edifice built in 1872 by the brewer Jovan Cofman destined to receive his offices and to represent his beer brand this two story had later served as a merchant gallery with the shops rented by the rich German entrepreneurs.

VLADICANSKI DVOR – The Bishop’s Palace, Dvorska ulica 20. This very nice neoclassical palace had been built from 1750 to 1757 by the orthodox bishop Jovan Georgijevic to establish here the residence of the eparchy of Banat. With the chapel of St. Michael and Gabriel the palace makes an ensemble approaching the palaces of Venice, with its monumental entrance in the forged iron and its slate roof in the selected shapes. In the inside the chapel contains an iconostasis in the baroque style organized around a great representation of Christ. It has been the work by the painter Nikola Neskovic. In the palace there has been a gallery with the pictures of the bishops since the XVIII century, as well as numerous manuscripts and religious objects.

KULA Donjon. On the hill dominating the East of the town there is a donjon from the XV century offering a magnificent view. Seventeen meters high and 6 meters wide, this tower, constructed in the place of the Roman garrison made part of the destroyed fortress of the “Belgrade Peace” signed by Turks and Austrians in 1739. In fact, the Turks having been engaged three times to take it, had lost it finally in 1717 to the Eugene of Savoy troops. This is today the favourite by the people of the town.

Churches

SVETI NIKOLA – The orthodox cathedral. Recognizable by its baroque clock tower, the church St. Nicholas had been erected between 1785 and 1805, the time it had been promoted a cathedral. This ensemble, a sole whole, in the shape of an inverse boat contains the treasury of the Serbian religious paintings, with an iconostasis painted by Pavel Djurkovic, the wall paintings by masters Jaksic and Popovic, not to forget two great pictures by the celebrated Paja Jovanovic. One should also notice ten icons by Nikola Neskovic.

SVETI GERHARD – A catholic church. Constructed in 1861 in the neo-gothic style, its façade interesting by two high and pointed belfries, as well as the great rosette elements infrequent in these regions. The Viennese architect wanted to give it the gothic elements: the elevated columns and the Latin cross. In the inside the glass cases and numerous sculptures reminding the belonging to this medieval period.

USPENSKA – The church of the Virgin’s Dream. This little church had been constructed in many stages. The main body had been finished in 1764, but one had to wait until 1786 to see the belfry. Erected in 1814. the roof is typically baroque. One should see the inside for its iconostasis realised by Arsa Teodorovic aided by the painters Josif Rakov and Aksentije Popovic.

Its natural situation offers numerous tourist offerings. Its greenish and of the spring nature at the same time permit to give oneself to pleasures of walks to the kayak and to speleology. The town of Valjevo itself is rich in monuments of its situation at the Turkish border. There is a Turkish town and a Serbian town separated from each other by a river, and the monuments the resistance to the oppression during two World Wars.
History

Already in the paleolith there are the traces of human settlements around the caves of Petnica in an environment very favourable indeed. The valley is wedged between the old mountains and the red fruit crop. The village organised about it master or knez has already been mentioned in the religious manuscripts in 1019. in XIV century Valjevo is a little town, residence of a count in the Serbian monarchy of Dragutin and surrounded by many monasteries. But the Ottomans conquered in 1458 et Valjevo has often been plundered by Austrian and Turkish Armies in XVIII century. This did not prevent them to maintain. Because of its position on the border there was intense artisan and commercial activities.

At the beginning of XIX century Valjevo learnt a dramatic fate in the moment of Serbian insurrection against the ottoman occupation. Since the knez Nenadovic and Bircanin have established the centre of insurrection against Turks bloody and cruel battles have taken place terminating with the decapitations of these two men on February the 4th 1804. but this spirit of resistance has been repeated a century later because in environment of this town the Serbian Army have in 1914 defeated the five times more numerous coalition Austro-German Army. In 1941 the young partisan Steva Filipovic became famous thanks to his refusing to comply to the Nazi orders, and that is why he had been killed together with many comrades of his.
Monuments

QUARTER TESNJAR. On the right bank of the river Kolubara the first thing to be seen is Valjevo. The houses and little shops dated in the XVIII century and remained unchanged since. There are also artisans not known by us. Decide by yourself: saddlers, wavers, potters and even the skirt producers. This well known quarter of Valjevo was the most important in the town till the I World War and it still keeps the perfume of well done work and of the exchange between the shops on both sides of the street. Today it is the place where one uses to have a coffee or at the time of “Tesnjar Evenings” to see the festivals.

NENADOVIC TOWER on one of the heights near the centre one of the symbolic monument of the struggle of Valjevians for their independence in XIX century. Erected 1813 by Vojvoda Nenadovic this three stories square tower of stone was determine to defend the town liberated 1804 from Turks. Unfortunately the tower was used a little only because from the end of the year 1813 it had fallen to the hands of Ottomans. They transformed it into the prison and here the Ottoman police tortured the leaders of the first two insurrections.

SQUARE VOJVODA MISIC. A nice square in the central European style with Grand hotel and the buildings colour tan with great windows. An atmosphere of quietness comes from the large walking street from the Vojvoda Misic monument this Serbian general is well known by the victorious counter-offensive against Germans 1914.

Thirty meters upwards you will notice the Square “Pesnistva” surrounded by very nice houses from the beginning of XX century. The hotel itself is in red and today it is the residence of “Radio Valjevo”. The sculpture is of the great poetess Desanka Maksimovic, born in the environment of Valjevo, in Brankovina.

THE PARTISAN MONUMENT. Even if the natives do not want to speak extensively, one should go to see this monument dedicated to the struggle of the partisan communists against the Nazism. Situated on the hill of Krusik beneath the town this monumental sculpture representing the young Stevan Filipovic with the arms held upwards symbolising the refusal to put down one’s face before the occupier. In 1941 This young metal worker from Valjevo in the place of execution called to arousal. The symbolic served evidently communists, but one should go to take a look will only be to plunge into the atmosphere of an age immensely revolutionary.
Galleries

THE MUSELIM PALACE (MUSELIMOV KONAK), Desankin Venac. Open from 9.30 am. to 2 p.m. from Monday to Friday (on Saturdays also in summer time. Entrance 60 dinars. A Museum to be seen absolutely. Constructed in XVIII century in a Serbian mountain style, this building remains the most ancient house in the town. It represents a memorial because in its cellar knez Aleksa Nenadovic and Ilija Bircanin had been decapitated by Turks. The Museum has been divided into two parts. On the ground floor there are more than 150 pieces from the time of the First Serbian insurrection, rifles a la Turk, the elongated cannons, daggers filled in and incrustated with stones, but also the flags embroidered with gold of the first Serbian squadrons from XIX century as well as the documents written in these years from 1804-1815. then this guide will lead you to the basement where there is the reconstructed scene of execution of February 1804 of two leaders of the Serbian arousal. One part of the history will explain to us the tragedies the Serbian people had to endure.

NATIONAL MUSEUM, Trg Vojvode Misica 3, site: www.museum.org.yu. At he same office hour as for “Muselimov Konak”. Entrance 40 dinars. In the very nice house there was the lyceum of Valjevo before. More than 1,000 pieces displayed in four sections: History, Beaux arts, Archaeology and Ethnology. In reconstruction since2002, but the reopening anticipated January 2005.

MODERN GALLERY, Vuka Karadzica 11 Open from 10 a.m. to6 p.m. Next to the very nice present lyceum, a gallery determine to the modern painting. A permanent exhibition of the painter Ljuba Popovic with about thirty pictures from the period 1953-1963, but also the temporary exhibitions of the more recent artists. An agreeable atmosphere thanks also to its library and to the internal decoration.

TRNAVAC GALLERY, Suvoborska 48, site: www.ius.trnavac.org.yu Open from 11 a.m. to 7 p.m. Gallery and the artistic studio at the same time. This complex dedicated to the artist Radovan Trnavac presents also his atelier and his studio next to the gallery. Here could be seen his works as well as 40 pieces which are also the presents of the artist having come from Soviet Union, USA, Ukraine or Peru.

Since XIV century there was a castle named “Castella Kara”, the property of many Hungarian families. But in 1521 the castle had been destroyed by Turks who gave it the name of “Karlovci”. The town became celebrated since January 26th 1699 when the Austrians and the Turks had signed there the “Peace of Karlowitz” rejecting Turks definitively from Vojvodina.
Sremski Karlovci thus became a Serbian cultural centre and at the same time the Austrian-Hungarian Empire designated it the residence of Serbian orthodox Patriarch cast out from Kosovo-Metohija 1690. The first theatre play in Serbian language was played in 1733, and in 1791 the first Serbian lyceum outside of Belgrade or Novi Sad had been founded. In XIX century this is the place of encounter of the greatest Serbian men of literature and theologians and Karlovci had the same aspect of a burgh they still have today.
Tourist sites

The interest of Sremski Karlovci has been in that all important monuments have been concentrated in a limited perimeter around the central square, Trg Branka Radicevica. Only the “Chapel of the Peace” where the Agreement of Karlowitz had been signed in 1699, has been a little distant. We would pay a visit to these cultural monuments by going away from the main road up to the height of a hill.
The entrance is 10 to 30 Dinars for each place.

THE ORTHODOX SEMINARY – In a shadowed park between “Stefaneum” (the school founded in 1904 by the metropolitan Stefan Stratimirovic) and the Patriarchal Residence there has been rising an elegant building in yellow shades and very “central European” has been rising. This is a seminary founded in 1794, which had known its hours of glory in the second half of the XIX century, under Ilarion Ruvarac – the rector, when the Seminary had had a department of the natural sciences of Europe. Today it is still a boarding school. More than 1000 students.

RESIDENCE OF THE PATRIARCH – In front of the hotel “Boheme” on the central square there is this impressive edifice constructed in 1894 in the place of the former Palace of Justice. This edifice involved at the beginning of XX century a library and a gallery created out of the personal collection of Patriarch Arsenije Carnojevic brought from Kosovo. But during the II World War all these riches had been stolen and taken to Zagreb. Today there is only a little part of it in Belgrade in the Museum of the Orthodox Church. The residence of the Patriarch should be visited for its Chapel St. Dimitri where had been displayed the icons from XV to XVIII centuries as well as the portraits of the Patriarchs from XVI and XVII centuries.
Presently the building has been the residence of the bishop of the region of Srem and the summer residence of Serbian orthodox Patriarch.

ORTHODOX CATHEDRAL SABORNA CRKVA – Recognizable by its two belfries of the baroque style overhead by an orthodox cross. The cathedral of Sremski Karlovci has been abundant with the riches of the Serbian religious art. It had been constructed in 1758 by the metropolitan Pavle Nenadovic in the place of a little church dedicated to St. Nicholas. One should know that it had been the centre of the Serbian church from 1730 till 1920, and thus the inside decoration has been showing that power. The chandelier in the middle surrounded by the Byzantine crown and the case containing the relics of the Patriarch Arsenije Sremac (the second Serbian archbishop in history) have been witnessing of the residence of the patriarchs during three centuries. Moreover, the 1799 fire had destroyed a great part of the original building could explain the narrowness of the chorus, but also the luxury of the decoration with the motives in marble according to the picture of St. Sophia in Tzarigrad (Istanbul).

On the side walls the Serbian painter of reputation Paja Jovanovic had presented on the right the return of Serbs in front of the Mayoralty of Karlovci in 1814 and on the left a very nice “St. George killing the Dragon” and the Crowning of the King Stefan by his brother St. Sava. But especially the magnificent iconostasis, the work of Jakov Orfelin and Teodor Racun would surprise you. Finally you would not miss noticing the icon of “Virgin Mary and the child Jesus” decorated by diamonds and the precious stones.

SERBIAN LYCEUM – On the height of the square and at the corner of the street “Karlovackih Djaka” there is the first Serbian Lyceum in the history. Founded in 1791 thanks to the wish of metropolitan Stefan Stratimirovic and to the donations of the rich merchant Dmitri Anastasijevic. At first it was a little low house with only a few classes. The courses had been held in Latin and in German. As late as the end of the XIX century this building has got its present aspect, a mixture of the Serbian medieval architecture (the windows, columns, decoration) and the Secessionism in 1890. Since then the funds of 18,000 rare works and the courses in Latin and in German.

THE CHAPEL OF THE PEACE – One should use little streets in the centre and ascend the Svetozara Markovica street up to this white building overhead by a dome visible from distance. Here had been signed the Peace Agreement (the “Agreement of Karlowitz”) between Turks and Austrians on January 26th 1699. The protagonists began the negotiations in a low house with four entrances allowing all parties to be represented and especially around a round table for the first time in history. The present chapel had been constructed as late as 1817 in the place of a Turkish camp. Here is the tomb of a Venetian diplomat died in Karlovci during the peace negotiations.

HISTORY

Smederevo has been known in the Serbian history as the capital of the kingdom of Serbia and its history has been intimately mixed to that of the fortress. In 1427 despot Djuradj Brankovic thrown out of Belgrade by Hungarians and threatened by Turks from the South decided to establish here the capital of Serbia. To defend the capital, the Serbian despot had erected 1429-1430 one of the largest fortresses in the Balkans. But by taking the fortress by Sultan Mehmed 1459, not only had the town lost of its importance, but this tragedy signified the end of the Serbian medieval State. The Austrians had conquered it three times in the XVIII century, but had been compelled to cede it to Turks. The Serbian rebels under Karadjordje Petrovic conquered it on November 8th 1808, and Smederevo became the centre of the First Serbian Insurrection in 1867 Turks had definitively left the town. Smederevo took its full foot in the industrial period and developed its river commerce. But the II World War had marked the town by the explosion on June 5th 1941 in the German ammunition depot having 3500 dead. In 1944 the American bombing had destroyed a part of the town.
THE TOURIST SITES

THE FORTRESS – It has been one of the largest and best preserved fortresses in the Balkans. This medieval city has been known by Serbs because, constructed by despot Djuradj Brankovic in 1430, it contained the institutions of the Serbian medieval State till the middle of XV century. In 1459 the Sultan Mehmed conquered it and the fortress belonged to the Ottomans during three centuries. As late as 1806 when the I Serbian Insurrection had been in course, the Turks had been thrown out. It became an arsenal at the end of XIX century and the terrible tragedy in 1941 had marked the memory of the town for ever. The Germans caused the explosion leading to 2500 dead.

The fortress of Smederevo may be reached from the railway station and, after passing the main gate, one got impressed by its monumentality. The construction design has been of a triangle having the sides of 400 and 500 meters. The East and the West sides have been protected by the Danube and the Jezava. But one should imagine the South trench doubled by an artificial trench from end to end. One may notice the barrage and two square towers in the South and in the East, and the cylindrical towers in the West. In the current of time the low barrages supporting the main trench disappeared and had been wiped off as well as the great gate on the side of the Danube.

In the trench of the fortified place a great plateau contained the garrison. You should direct yourself to the right and for70 Dinars you would reach the core royal parts. In this reduced North-East angle of the fortress one may notice the donjon, and climb with difficulty up the stairs on the guard had to pass. This place had been the residence of Djuradj Brankovic in XV century with reception hall with a secret door allowing the communication with the outside.

CHURCH SAINT GEORGE – On the central square, surrounded by pedestrian streets, very animated in summer time, there has been erected the church Saint George with its two belfries. On a brilliant baroque style visible by the utilisation of bronze for the roof and the yellow colour for the façade, St. George is another emblematic monument of the town. The inside has been offering the orthodox jewels of the orthodox art of XVII and XVIII centuries, the iconostasis of vivacious colours and of the classical themes, a lot of gilding and the flowery wall paintings. The numerous masses and concerts have been performed here, and it has not been surprising to hear the melodious Slav choruses when you unexpectedly enter.

THE CHURCH OF SAINT VIRGIN – In the cemetery of Smederevo being situated at the entrance to the town coming from Belgrade, a little church of an ancient monastery founded in the XV century, today disappeared, may still be seen. By its design with three connected apsides and made of the brick and the stone, this church has been attached to the School of Morava. On the inside a few wall paintings from XVII century representing the cycle of the Christ’s’ life and the David’s psalms.
AROUND SMEDEREVO

THE ROYAL RESIDENCE OF OBRENOVICS – few kilometres downstream on the Danube bank the niche “Zlatni Breg”, the summer residence of dynasty of Obrenovic. Constructed by Milos Obrenovic in the middle of XIX century the royal dwelling dominating the Danube where it had been situated. Of the neo-classical style, Zlatni Breg has been constituted of two square wings and one very academic passage. The gate of the prince and the dominating white colour are giving it a certain majesty. The residence has been surrounded by a vine yard of 30 hectares installed and maintained by Milan, the son of Milos Obrenovic. Around the castle the cycling pathway has been offering a nice view of the Danube.

Situated at crossroads of Balkan and Central European highways, connecting Asia Minor to Europe, Niš is one of the oldest cities in the Balkans, and has from ancient times been considered a gateway between the East and the West. It is home to one of Serbia’s oldest Christian churches dating to the 4th century in the suburb of Mediana.[3] Niš is also notable as the birthplace of Constantine the Great, the first Christian Roman Emperor and the founder of Constantinople,[4] as well as two other Roman emperors, Constantius III and Justin I.

Niš is a university center. There are about 30,000 university students at the University of Niš, which comprises 13 faculties. Niš is also one of the most important industrial centres in Serbia, a center of electronics industry (see Elektronska Industrija Niš), industry of mechanical engineering, textile industry and tobacco industry. In 2013 the city will host the Ecumenical Assembly of Christian Churches, in honour to 1700 years of Constantine´s Edict of Milan

Geography and climate

Niš is situated at the 43°19′ latitude north and 21°54′ longitude east in the Nišava Valley, near the spot where it joins the Južna Morava River. It is in Niš that the trunk road running from the north down the Morava River valley forks into two major lines: – the south one, leading to Thessalonica and Athens, – and the east one, leading towards Sofia and Istanbul, and further on, towards the Near East. The central city area is at 194m altitude above sea level (the Main City Square). The highest point in the city area is Sokolov kamen (Falcon’s rock) on Suva Planina Mountain (1523m) while the lowest spot is at Trupale, near the mouth of the Nišava (173m). The city area covers 596.71 km².

The climate of the Niš area is moderate and continental, with an average temperature of 11.2°C. July is the warmest month of the year, with the average of 21.2°C. The coldest month is January, averaging at 0.2°C. The average of the annual rainfall is 567.25 mm/m². The average barometer value is 992.74 mb. There are 123 days with rain and 43 days with snow. On the average, the wind force is just below 3 Beaufort.

Early history

The city’s early name under the Roman Empire remained Naissus, which is the Latin name derived from its original name Naissos (“city of the nymphs”), a Greek colony founded in antiquity.
“When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted, as though it had been sacked; only a few sick persons lay in the churches. We halted at a short distance from the river, in an open space, for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of men slain in war.’
—Priscus on Naissus in 448 A.D.[1]

The etymology of the original name Naissos (“city of the nymphs”) was derived from a mythical creature of Greek mythology – Naiad (from the Greek νάειν, “to flow,” and νἃμα, “running water”) which was the nymph of freshwater streams rivers and lakes. At the time when Greek colony was founded[citation needed], the local residents believed that the numerous surrounding ponds, bogs, and the moor on the left riverbank were inhibited by the nymphs. Niš is a possible location of Nysa, a mythical place in Greek mythology where the young god Dionysus was raised.

At the time of the conquest of the Greeks by Rome, Naissos was used as a base for operations. Naissus was first mentioned in Roman documents near the beginning of 2nd century CE, and was considered a place worthy of note in the Geography of Ptolemy of Alexandria. The Romans occupied the town in the period of the “Dardanian War” (75-73 BC), and the city developed as a strategic crossroads, garrison and market town in the province of Moesia Superior.

In AD 268, during the “Crisis of the third century” when the Empire almost collapsed, the greatest Gothic invasion seen to date came pouring into the Balkans. The Goths’seaborne allies, the Heruli, supplied a fleet, carrying vast armies down the coast of the Black Sea where they ravaged coastal territories in Thrace and Macedonia. Other huge forces crossed the Danube in Moesia. An invasion of Goths into the province of Pannonia was leading to disaster. In 268, Emperor Gallienus won some important initial victories at land and sea, but it was his successor Claudius II who finally defeated the invaders at the Battle of Naissus in 268, one of the bloodiest battles of the 3rd century. Invaders allegedly left thirty to fifty thousand dead on the field.

Four years later in 272, the son of military commander Constantius Chlorus and an innkeeper’s daughter called Flavia Iulia Helena was born in Naissus and destined to rule as Emperor Constantine the Great. The remains of the 4th century Imperial villa at Mediana are an important archaeological site located close to Niš. Mosaic floors and other traces of luxury are preserved in the archaeological museum on the site. Other aristocratic suburban villas are clustered nearby. The 4th century Christian basilica in Niš is one of the oldest Christian monuments. The Roman Emperor Constantius III (421) who was the power behind the throne during much of the 410′s was born in Naissus.

Though the emperor Julian strengthened the walls, the very prosperity of Naissus made it a target and it was destroyed by Attila in 443. Attila the Hun conquered Naissus with battering rams and rolling towers—military sophistication that was new in the Hun repertory. After the Huns captured the city of Naissus they massacred the inhabitants of the city. Years later, river banks outside the city were still covered with human bones as a reminder of the devastation the Huns had inflicted. The founder of the Justinian Dynasty, Justin I, was born in Naissus in 450, and his nephew Justinian I did his best to restore the city, but Naissa never recovered its 4th century urbanity.

Middle Ages

The latter half of the 6th century CE saw the first major migrations of Slavs and Avars. During the 6th and 7th century CE, Slavic tribes made eight attempts to take Niš . During the final attack in 615 CE the invaders took the city, and most of the Roman population fled or perished, but some small traces survived in the local Vlach population. The city and nearby arable land were settled by Slavs.In the 9th century, the Bulgarians became masters of Naissus, followed by the Hungarians in the 11th century, during which the town’s militia fought a successful battle against the People’s Crusade on 3 July 1096. The Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus reconquered it once more in 1173[citation needed], and towards the end of the 12th century the town was in the hands of the Serbian prince Stephen Nemanja, who received hospitably the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his crusaders.

In 1375, the Ottoman Turks captured Naissus for the first time from the Serbians. The fall of the Serbian state, conquered by Sultan Murad in 1385, decided the fate of Niš as well. After a 25-day long siege, the city fell to the Turks. After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the Constantinopol-Wien road grew deserted.

In 1443, Niš fell into the hands of Ludanjin. The town itself was given back to the Serbs, while Branković gave it over to Đorđe Mrnjavčević. In the so-called Long Campaign, Christian armies, led by the Hungarian military leader Janos Hunyadi (known as Sibinjanin Janko in Serbian folk poetry) together with Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković, defeated the Turks and repelled them to Sofia. An important battle was fought near Niš, which remained a free city for a whole year after that. It was during this battle that an Ottoman commander named Gjerg Kastrioti, aka Skanderbeg, deserted the Ottoman ranks with a strong following. Escaping to Albania, he mounted a semi-successful guerilla war against the Ottomans that lasted his remaining lifetime.

Niš succumbed to Turkish rule again in 1448 and remained thus for the following 245 years. In the period of Turkish rule, Niš was one of the seats of Turkish military and civil administration. Niš Fortress, built in that period, still represents one of the most beautiful and best preserved edifices in the Balkans. The extant fortification is of Turkish origin, dating from the first decades of the 18th century (1719-1723). It is well-known as one of the most significant and best preserved monuments of this kind in the Mid-Balkans. The Fortress was erected on the site of earlier fortifications – the ancient Roman, Byzantine, and later yet Mediaeval forts. The Fortress has a polygonal ground plan, eight bastion terraces and four massive gates. It stretches over 22 ha of land. The rampart walls are 2,100 m long, 8 m high and 3 m thick on the average. The building stone, brought from the nearby quarries, was hewn into rather evenly-shaped blocks. The inside of the rampart wall was additionally fortified by a wooden construction, ‘santrač’, and an additional bulwark, ‘trpanac’. On the outside, the Fortress was surrounded by a wide moat, whose northern part has been preserved to our days. Beside the massive stone rampart walls, the southern Stambol gate and the western Belgrade gate are pretty well preserved. Partly preserved are the water gates, while the northern Vidin gate and the south-east Jagodina gate are preserved only in remains. With a complete reconstruction of all the gates, Niš Fortress would once again become, architecturally and functionally, a closed fortification system. In 1737, Niš was seized by the Austrian army, in their campaign against the Turks. The war ended in 1739.
Monument to the liberators of Niš

At the beginning of the 19th century the crucial thing for the renewal of the Serbian state was the liberation of Niš from the Turks. The Serbian leader Karađorđe, in his talks with the representatives of Russia, as well as in his talks with Napoleon and the Turks, pointed out that Niš had to belong to Serbia. The Serbian insurrection army headed towards Niš in order to take it and go ahead towards Old Serbia and Kosovo. Karađorđe’s suggestion was to use the whole army to liberate Niš, while the rest of the commanders demanded to attack Niš from four different points. The latter was accepted. On April 27, 1809, the Serbian insurrection army with its 16,000 soldiers approached the villages of Kamenica, Gornji and Donji Matejevac, near the town of Niš with Miloje Petrović as Commander-in-chief. The Serbian soldiers made six trenches. The first and biggest was on Čegar Hill with voivoda Stevan Sinđelić at the head. The second one was in the village Gornji Matejevac (near the newly rebuilt Latin Church) with Petar Dobrnjac as the commander. The third trench was north-east to Kamenica, with voivoda Ilija Barjaktarević. The fourth trench was in Kamenica with Miloje Petrović as the chief commander. The fifth trench was in the mountain above Kamenica and under the control of voivoda Pauljo Matejić, while the sixth one was made in Donji Matejevac. Miloje Petrović’s request to attack Niš directly was not accepted. The demand was to wait and to besiege the town.
Outer wall of Skull Tower

Meanwhile, the Turkish army was reinforced with 20,000 soldiers from Adrianople, Thessalonica, Vranje and Leskovac. The Turks attacked the trench of Petar Dobrnjac on 30 May The following day, on May 31, 1809, the most prominent trench on Čegar Hill, under the command of Stevan Sinđelić, was attacked. The battle lasted all day. As Milovan Kukić witnessed, “the Turks attacked five times, and the Serbs managed to repulse them five times. Each time their losses were great. Some of the Turks attacked, and some of them went ahead, and thus when they attacked for the sixth time they filled the trenches with their dead so that the alive went over their dead bodies and they began to fight against the Serbs with their rifles, cutting and sticking in their enemies with their sabers and knives. The Serbian soldiers from other trenches cried out to help Stevan. But there was no help,” as Milovan Kukić said, “either because they could not help without their cavalry, or because Miloje Petrović did not allow it.

When Stevan Sinđelić saw that the Turks had taken over the trench, he ran to the powder cave, took out his gun and fired at the powder magazine. The explosion was so strong that all the surrounding was shaken, and the whole trench caught in a cloud of dense smoke. Stevan Sinđelić, who up to that moment had reached everywhere, helping and encouraging everybody, went into the air.” Three thousands Serbian soldiers and more than double of that on the Turkish side were killed on Čegar Hill. An important monument from early 19th century Serbian uprisings against Turkish reign is the Skull Tower (Ćele kula), a tower which incorporates human skulls (those of dead Serbian “rebels”) in its construction, a monument likely unique in its design.
University of Niš building and Memorial Chapel

The city was incorporated in Serbia as a consequence of the Treaty of San Stefano. Following the rout of the Serbian army by the Austrians, Bulgarians and Germans in World War I, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria entertained the German Kaiser Wilhelm II at Niš in January 1916. The Kaiser was greeted by the following dubious mock-Roman salutation: Ave Imperator, Caesar et Rex. Victor et gloriosus es. Nissa antiqua omnis Orientis populi te salutant redemptorem, ferentem oppressis prosperitatem atque salutem, which translates as: “Hail Emperor, Caesar and King: You are victor and glorious. In ancient Niš all the peoples of the east salute you, bringer of prosperity to the oppressed.”

During the time of German occupation in World War II, the first Nazi concentration camp in Yugoslavia was located near Niš. In 1942 an armed revolt led to an escape. The escapees were guerrillas from Josip Broz Tito’s movement who was captured by German forces during the Battle of Kozara. This escape is featured in Miomir Stamenković’s film Lager Niš, 1987. The city was heavily bombed by the Allies in 1944 along with other cities in Axis Serbia.[6] In 1996, Niš was the first city in Serbia to stand against the government of Slobodan Milošević. A coalition of democratic opposition parties called Zajedno (Together) won the local elections in Niš in 1996. The first democratic mayor of City of Niš was Zoran Živković, who later became the Prime Minister of Serbia in 2003. On May 7, 1999 it was the site of the NATO Cluster bombing of Niš. On local elections held in September 2004. Smiljko Kostic of Nova Srbija won the mayor office. Demokratic party provoced referendum to recall Kostic in November 2005. Majority woted against recall. In local elections held im May 2008. Democratic party, G17+ and coalition assembled around Socialist party of Serbia created majority in local Assembly, so Milos Simonovic from Democratic party was elected mayor.

Roman emperors

Three Roman emperors where born in this city

* Constantine I, the great, (Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus) – ruled 306 to 337
* Constantius III, (Flavius Constantius) – ruled 421
* Justin I, (Flavius Iustinus) – ruled 518 to 527

Economy

The city of Niš is the administrative, industrial, commercial, financial and cultural center of the south-eastern part of Republic of Serbia. The position of Niš is strategically important, located at the intersection of European highway and railway networks connecting Europe with Asia. Niš is easily accessible, having an airport – Niš Constantine the Great Airport and being a point of intersection of numerous railroad and highway lines. It is in Niš that the trunk road running from the north down the Morava River valley forks into two major lines:

* the south one, leading to Thessalonica and Athens, along the Vardar River valley,
* and the east one, running along the Nisava and the Marica, leading towards Sofia and Istanbul, and further on, towards the Near East.

These roads have been widely known from ancient times, because they represented the beaten tracks along which peoples, goods and armies moved. Known as ‘Via Militaris’in Roman and Byzantine periods, or ‘Constantinople road’in Middle Ages, these roads still represent major European traffic arteries. Niš thus stands at a point of intersection of the roads connecting Asia Minor to Europe, and the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.

Industry

Niš is one of the most important industrial centres in Serbia, well-known for its tobacco industry, industry of electronics, construction industry, industry of mechanical engineering, textile industry, colour metal industry, food processing industry, industry of rubber goods.

Tobacco industry

* Niš Tobacco Factory – was built and opened in 1930 at the present location at Crveni Krst. Its basic production is that of tobacco, cigarettes, filters, the elements of the tobacco machinery and equipment, adhesives etc. In 1995 a scientific – research institute was built. The Institute selects, produces and protects tobacco, and creates and designs new products. In August 2003, The Philip Morris Corporation purchased the Niš Tobacco Factory (DIN) through the privatization process. Philip Morris’total investment of EUR 580 million makes it the single largest foreign investor in Serbia of the Year 2003.

Construction industry

* Gradjevinar, stock company – originated from the construction firm of Niš County called Grapon in 1961. Gradjevinar has built large structural complexes as shopping centres, department buildings, entire campuses, sections of cities which can be found in Niš, Belgrade, East Serbia, Russia, Bulgaria, Israel, Jordan, United Arabic Emirates. The company has built:
o more than 30,000 apartments, of approximately 180,000 square meters,
o clinics, health facilities and hospitals, of approximately 80,000 square metres,
o department stores, malls of approximately 50,000 square metres,
o hotels, tourist sites, banks, schools, theatres, sports facilities of approximately 50,000 square metres,
o various warehouses, factories, farms and cold storage buildings of approximately 150,000 square metres.

Electronics Industry

* Electronics Industry – Holding Corporation, stock corporation – originated from the foundation of the Institute for the Production of Radio Sets and Roentgen Machines, “RR Niš”, in 1948. The basic production encompasses acoustic equipment, electronic tubes, specific installations, printed plates, electronic machine elements, hydraulics, pneumatics, appliances, air-conditioners, medical equipment, roentgen machines.

Industry of rubber goods

* Vulkan, stock company was built and opened in 1937. Its production is large in scope and it comprises various rubber-technical articles with numerous applications in mining and construction industry (transporters and cranes).

Colour metal industry

* NISSAL – Stock corporation for aluminum produces tools, metal reproductive materials, metal, wooden and other material constructions, collects and treats for industrial refuse.

Machinery industry

* The Pump Factory “Jastrebac” founded in 1910., produces more than 1,000 of different types and sizes of mechanical pumps.

* MIN (Machinery Industry of Niš) Holding, stock corporation founded in 1884, produces various machines, various types of equipment: chemical, petrol-chemical, mining, metallurgic, railway-transport, diesel-locomotive, pump, hydro-thermo-nuclear, water and gas treatment. In 1993 MIN got transformed into a holding company of 37 joint-stock units, 24 of which deal with the basic production, 6 of which deal with services, and 7 with specialized business.

Textile Industry

* Nitex – Niš Textile Industry produces fabrics, knitted material, continuous embroidery, clothes.. The company was founded 1897. by Niš capitalist Mita Ristić with his sons (Dušan and Dragoljub). In 2006. Nitex – Niš was acquired by the businessman of Montenegrin origin – Đorđije Nicović.

Food processing industry

* Žitopek, stock company for the production and trade of bakery goods was established on March 3, 1947 when 14 bakers formally signed a contract by which they were supposed to join their workshops into “Žitopek”.

* The Brewery of Niš, stock company produces beer and non-alcohol drinks. The brewery was founded 1884. by Jovan Apel.
* Skull Tower (Serbian: Ћеле Кула, Ćele Kula) – A monument to 19th century Serbian rebels. It is situated on Zoran Đinđić Boulevard, on the old Constantinople road leading to Sofia.
* Čegar – The place where Battle on Cegar Hill had happened on May 19, 1809.
* Concentration camp – One rare saved German Nazis prisoner camps in Europe. It is situated on 12.February Boulevard.
* Bubanj – A place where 10 000 civilian hostages from Niš and south Serbia were being shot during World War II by German Nazis. Monument is in the shape of three clenched fists.
* Memorial Chapel in the memory of NATO bombing victims – The chapel was built by City government of Niš (lead by DS/SPO, two democratic parties) while monument was built by the State government (lead by conservative SPS/SRS parties) in 1999. They are situated in Sumatovacka street near Nis Fortress.
* Niš Fortress – The extant fortification of Turkish origin, dating from the first decades of the 18th century (1719-1723). It is situated in the city center.
* The fortress-cafes – They are situated near Stambol gate (main gate of fortress).
* Mediana – Archeological site from the late Roman period located on the road leading to Sofia near EI Nis.
* Tinkers Alley – An old urban downtown in today Kopitareva Street, built in the first half of 18th century. It was a street full of tinkers but today it’s full with cafes&restaurants.
* Kalča, City passage and Gorča – Trade centers situated in Milana Obrenovica Street.
* Niška Banja – It is a very popular spa in the summer season. It is located at 10 km from city center on the road leading to Sofia, in the bottom of Suva Planina Mountain.
* Spa of Topilo

Kragujevac is located at a crossroads. Given this location, the city has been devastated many times and has suffered great losses of life in a number of wars throughout history. Kragujevac began to prosper in 1818 when Prince Milos Obrenovic proclaimed it the capital of the new Serbian State, and began to lay the first foundations of Serbia. The first Serbian Constitution was proclaimed here in 1835 and the first idea of the independent electoral democracy. The first Law on the Printing Press was passed in Kragujevac in 1870. Kragujevac, the capital, was developing and cherishing modern, progressive and free ideas and resembled many European capitals of that time.

Apart from the political influence of the time, Kragujevac became the cultural and educational center of the state. Most important institutions built were: The First Grammar School, the first Pharmacy, and the first printing press. Kragujevac gave rise to many international scholars, professors, academics, scientists, artists and statesmen.

The turning point in the overall development of Kragujevac was in 1851 when the Canon Foundry began production. The new era in the City’s economic developmentbegan. The main industry of the XIX and XX century was military production. Kragujevac has been one of Serbia’s largest exporters since 1886when the main railroads Belgrade –Nis connected Kragujevac.

New centuries brought new wars. In the World War I Kragujevac again became the seat of many republic institutions even Supreme army command was roomed within the Court House building. During the war Kragujevac lost 15% of its population.

In the World War II Kragujevac suffered great losses in human life and was devastated and destroyed. October 21, 1941 was the most tragic day in the history of Kragujevac. On that day fascists committed one of the biggest mass crimes when they shot several thousand Kragujevac citizens.

In the post war period Kragujevac developed more industry. Industry has been developed by the economic activity of many enterprises, their main products of export has been passenger cars and industrial vehicles, hunting arms, industrial chains, leather and textiles. Since 1976, Kragujevac has grown as a University center.

The Chamber/border government was constantly repressing the endeavours of people who lived in the trenches and who wanted to develop their town. That was the main reason that the whole idea of the liberation process was started.

Persistent in their exertion, backed by their property and sure of their own capabilities, the citizens made a deal  in 1747.  They agreed that in the Magistracy of the future liberated town, they will have the same number of representatives, equal rights in choosing senators and clerks, freely practice their own religion, build churches, schools, etc.

A delegation of citizens from the trenches – Racković, Vujić, Bogdanović, Rasković, Hajl and Anderle – was travelling to Vienna and borrowing money to pay for liberation diploma. Paying 80,000 rain forint in silver, our predecessors, noble merchants and craftsmen, bought their independency and freedom and widely opened the door of progress for them and their descendents. The loan was paid off when the city sold its meadows and wastelands to its citizens.

On February 1st, 1748 empress Maria Theresa declared that the town will become free royal city and names it in Latin – Neoplanta, Hungarian – Új-videk, German Neu-Satz and in Serbian – Novi Sad.

In the spring of 1748 Novi Sad begins its life following the example of other free cities of that time.  From 1748 to the end of 18th century the number of inhabitants grew, assets multiplied and children went to school. In the 1770’s the city had its own silk factory, brewery and tobacco mill. Everyday trade, religion and fun characterized life: the trade involved many European and Asian countries, and by the end of the century the city became the strongest economic centre in the south of Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Life in the crossroads and the will to continue living in accordance with the spirit of this city had its price and in 1849 Novi Sad was bombed for the first time. Out of 2812 buildings there were only 808 left.

In the second half of the 19th century the city started rapidly growing and rebuilding, which is where today’s old city architecture has its origin. From then on, to the World War I and the City Hall, Episcopal House and Catholic Church were built in the centre of the town; today’s secondary school “Jovan Jovanović Zmaj”, Iodine spa, Matica Srpska, etc. In the last years of the 19th century and in the beginning of the 20th century, the Central railway station, bridge, slaughterhouse, gas factory, electric power plant were built and street car transport was established.

In the mid 19th century, under the Austro-Hungarian reign, on the border towards the Turkish Empire, Novi Sad grew into a significant centre of culture and politics for all Serbs. It also had a strong economy and the cities poets named it Serbian Athens.

At that time in Novi Sad had 56 magazines and newspapers issued on Serbian language and in 1864 Matica Srpska, the oldest Serbian institution of science and culture, moved from Budapest to Novi Sad.  In 1861 the Serbian national theatre was founded, which is the oldest professional theatre in our country. The first Serbian national school was also built in Novi Sad in 1703, first high school in 1791 in Sremski Karlovci and the first hospital in 1746.

After World War I the Serbian army marched in Novi Sad on November 8th 1918.  The Big People’s Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevac and other Slavic nations on November 25th Banat, Bačka and Baranja joined to the Kingdom of Serbia. Just one day before, in the Assembly in Ruma the same thing happened with Srem region.

In Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Novi Sad became centre of Danube Banovina (province). At the same time the first boulevard is being built, building of Banovina and the new bridge. In 1936 there are already 69 000 people living in Novi Sad.

The Second World War brought about the round up of Horty’s fascist army, when Novi Sad lost 3000 inhabitants in three days, mostly Serbs and Jews. During the Second World War several thousands inhabitants of Novi Sad were killed and Novi Sad’s partisan squad liberated the city on October 23rd, 1944.  After the liberation Novi Sad, capital of Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, experiences huge growth as an economic, cultural, scientific, political and administrative centre of the Province.

In the, so-called, Anti-bureaucratic revolution in 1988, political relations in the country were changed and Novi Sad loses some of its jurisdiction.  A few years later, rises in inflation and poverty affected its population and in the wars on the territory of former Yugoslavia, 72 people from Novi Sad died.  Many young and educated people left the city, and in the following years Novi Sad served as a shelter for tens of thousands of refugees.

The period after the war and especially years 1996 – 1997 were marked by student demonstrations against the regime of Slobodan Milosović. NATO bombing in 1999 left the city without the bridges, communication, and water. After the NATO war operations, an already exhausted city begins to rebuild itself and included a temporary pontoon bridge.  In an undefined atmosphere of hope and extreme boundaries of endurance, citizens of Novi Sad finally celebrate the victory of the opposition at the September elections in 2000.

Ancient Period

In c. 600 B.C. the Thracian-Cimmerian and Scythian tribes moved across this area, while the Celtic tribes crossed this territory in the III century B.C. The founding of Singidunum is attributed to the Celtic tribe, the Scordiscs. As a fortified settlement, Singidunum was mentioned for the first time in 279 B.C. The first part of the word – Singi – means “round” and dunum means “fortress” or “town”. The name of the settlement was preserved throughout the Roman rule. The Romans conquered Belgrade in the beginning of the I century A.D. and it has been under their rule for full four centuries. Singidunum was most prosperous in 86 A.D., when the IV Legion of Flavius arrived. As an important Roman military camp, Singidunum gained municipal rights in the II century A.D. during the rule of emperor Hadrian. Its military importance became even higher in the III century. In that period, Singidunum was the center of the Christian diocese. Some time later, it was the place of birth of the Roman emperor Flavius Jovianus. After the division of the Roman Empire into the Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire in 395, Singidunum became a border town of the Byzantine Empire. This new position of the town determined its later fate, for it became not only a linking point of various cultural influences, but, before all, a communication and strategic key of the Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine Empire

The disintegration of the Roman Empire was followed by invasion of barbarian peoples: Eastern Goths, Gepidaes, Sarmatians, Avars, Slavs and others. Because of its advanced position at the border, Belgrade suffered frequent attacks and destructions. The attacks coming from the north, across Pannonia, the Danube and Sava, were so hard that even Singidunum, an important military stronghold, could not resist them. The Huns captured it and completely destroyed it in 441. Singidunum lost its Roman inhabitants then. After the fall of the Huns, the town became a part of the Byzantine Empire once again in 454, but it was soon conquered by the Sarmatians, and later the Eastern Goths. However, already in 488, it became a Byzantine town again. Byzantine emperor Justinian I rebuilt Singidunum in 535, restoring the fortress and city to its former military importance. At the end of the VI century, while the Byzantines were occupied with wars in Africa and Asia, the Mongol tribes of Avars appeared in front of the walls of Singidunum, and after them came the first groups of the Slavs. The name Singidunum disappeared after this barbarian invasion and the destruction of the town and it has never appeared again in the whole history afterwards. The city would re-emerge later, mentioned as Beograd, a Slavic word meaning “white fortress” (due to the color of the stone it was built from), in a letter written on April 16, 878 by Pope John VIII to Bulgarian prince Boris I Mihail. With its new name, Beograd, would eventually be restored to the same strategic significance it had held throughout its history, but never again would it be mentioned as Singidunum. Several centuries after the first mentioning of Belgrade as a Slavic town, various armies and conquerors control it by turns. The Franks were the first to reach Belgrade and destroy the Avars under the command of Charles the Great. The rule of the Franks was replaced by Bulgarians, and they gave place to Hungarians. Already in 1018, it once again became a border stronghold of the Byzantine Empire. During the XI and XII centuries, the rival forces of Hungary, Byzantine Empire and Bulgaria fought for it. After the Crusades of 1096 and 1147, 190,000 people pass through Belgrade in 1189, led by Frederick Barbarossa. This leader of crusaders saw Belgrade in ruins.

Middle Ages

The Serbian rule over Belgrade began in 1284, when the Serbian king Dragutin, son-in-law and vassal of the Hungarian king Ladislav IV was given rule over Belgrade. It was a period of intensive settling of Serbian population and increasing influence of the Serbian Orthodox Church. After Dragutin’s death, his brother Milutin came to the throne, but he has ruled over Belgrade for a short time, for in 1319 it was captured and totally destroyed by the Hungarians. Demolished and abandoned town became a border foothold of Hungarian resistance to expansion of the Serbian state from the south, in the time of Czar Dušan. In that condition Belgrade enters the XV century, when the Turks, a new conquering force, appeared on the historical stage of Europe. In strong desire to get as prepared as possible to resist Turkish invasion and to have a powerful stronghold on the Sava and Danube, the Hungarians allowed construction of Belgrade during the rule of Despot Stefan Lazarević. He ruled over Belgrade from 1403 until 1427 and that was the time of a real prosperity of this town. Belgrade was not only the capital of the Serbian state, but also the most important economic, cultural and religious center. Belgrade is supposed to have had about 40-50,000 inhabitants in that period. The Despot’s successor Đurađ Branković was forced to surrender the town to the Hungarians. During the hundred years of Hungarian rule the whole population structure was changed as well as shape of the very town.

Turkish Conquest

The Turks knew that Belgrade was the greatest obstacle in their campaigns towards Central Europe. After the fall of Smederevo in 1440 the Belgrade fortress was under siege by the Turkish army with over 100,000 soldiers. For almost a century Belgrade has resisted Turkish attacks. Finally, under the command of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, on August 28, 1521, the Turks managed to conquer Belgrade – the rampart of Christianity and the key of defense of whole Hungary. The town was demolished and burnt down, and the way to Western Europe open. With the moving of border to the north, the strategic position of Belgrade also changes, and in the next 150 years, it was relatively peaceful town with a more significant commercial and communication function. However, it was affected by a major Serb rebellion in 1594, which was crushed by the Turks, who burned churches and the relics (mortal remains) of Saint Sava on the Vračar plateau, an event the Temple of Saint Sava was built to commemorate in more recent times. Its highest progress under the Turks Belgrade makes in the XVII century, when it counts population of 100,000 and becomes the second-largest town, right after Istanbul.

After the Turkish defeat under the walls of Vienna in September 1688, the Austrians conquered Belgrade. Two years later, the Turks regained control over it, but these conflicts left Belgrade destroyed and its population killed, persecuted and robbed because of its cooperation with Austrians. Occupied by Austria three times (1688–1690, 1717–1739, 1789–1791), it was quickly recaptured and substantially razed each time by the Ottomans. After signing the peace treaty of Svishtov in 1791, the Austrians retreated to Zemun, and the janissaries were forbidden entrance to the Belgrade Pashalik (district). After Moustapha-pasha was killed in 1801, the janissaries established their own rule over the town and surrounding villages. That was a period of total anarchy, violence and robberies made by the janissaries. It was finished by the notorious slaughter of the Serbian knezes and other famous Serbs, which was the cause for organizing the insurrection.

Liberation of Belgrade

Awakening of national consciousness and events related to the slaughter of the knezes led to organization of the First Serbian Insurrection in 1804. The insurrection led by Karađorđe from the very beginning was also aimed at liberation of Belgrade. After two years of fight, the town was conquered on January 8, 1806. It became the capital of recently liberated part of Serbia and a symbol of freedom-loving tradition of its population. After renewal it also became an important economic, trade and cultural center. The dynamic development of Belgrade was interrupted by Turkish conquest in 1813, and the repressions which followed led to the insurrection in 1815. The leader of the insurrection, Knez Miloš Obrenović, managed to introduce more of diplomacy into relations with the Turks. Granting certain privileges, he moves Serbian population from the south to Belgrade, causing the Turks to sell their land and houses at prices far below real value. After 346 years of rule, the Turks left Belgrade for good on April 18, 1867, and Knez Mihailo Obrenović moved the capital from Kragujevac to Belgrade. That was a new stimulus to faster economic and cultural development of the town. In the second half of the XIX century it was brought closer to Europe in the aspect of city planning etc. The Kneza Mihaila Street had the central position and it was the shortest connection between the fortress and the town. It soon became the most important trade and business center of Belgrade and it has kept that role until today.

World War I

The intensive development of Belgrade which started after its final liberation from the Turks continued in the first years of the XX century. However, the further development of the city was hindered by a fact that Belgrade was a border city and an obstacle to Austrian expansionistic policy against Balkan. In planning of Austrian and German expansion to Balkan, an excuse was sought to attack Serbian by military force. It was found in the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian crown-prince Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo. World War I started with the ultimatum, and later the attack on Serbia. During World War I, Serbia lost 28% of its whole population, while Belgrade was the most destroyed town in Serbia. Immediately after the liberation, Belgrade became the capital of the newly-created Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which gave it even stronger impulse for faster development. Numerous buildings were constructed in the old city center, which gave Belgrade the shape of a European city.

World War II

The city was heavily bombed by the Luftwaffe on April 6, 1941, killing thousands of people. Yugoslavia was invaded by German, Italian, Hungarian and Bulgarian forces and the western suburbs were incorporated into a Nazi puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia. During the summer and fall of 1941, in reprisal to guerrilla attacks, the Germans carried out several massacres of citzens from Belgrade; in particular, members of Belgrade’s Jewish community were subject to mass shootings at the order of General Franz Böhme, the German Military Governor of Serbia. Böhme rigorously enforced the rule that for every German killed, 100 Serbs or Jews would be shot. Following the Nazi example, the Independent State of Croatia established extermination camps and perpetrated an atrocious genocide killing over 750.000 Serbs, Jews and Gypsies. This holocaust set the historical and political backdrop for the civil war that broke out fifty years later in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina and that accompanied the break-up of Yugoslavia in 1991-1992.

The city was bombed by the Allies as well, on April 16, 1944, killing about 1,600 people. Both bombings happened to fall on Orthodox Christian Easter. Most of the city remained under German occupation until October 20, 1944, when it was liberated by Communist Yugoslav Partisans and the Red Army. On November 29, 1945, Marshal Josip Broz Tito proclaimed the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in Belgrade. In the post-war period Belgrade grew rapidly as the capital of the renewed Yugoslavia, developing as a major industrial centre.

The Capital of Serbia

Many unsolved national, ethnical, political, economic and other problems in the country led to disintegration of Yugoslavia in 1991, which marked the end of the longest period of peace in Balkan in the XX century. Since 1992 Belgrade has been the capital of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro. As of February 2003, Belgrade has been the capital of the newly formed State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Since May 2006 Belgrade has been the capital of the Republic of Serbia.